Vijayanagara, meaning "city of victory," was the name of both a city and an empire.
The Vijayanagara empire was founded in the fourteenth century.
At its peak, the Vijayanagara empire stretched from the Krishna river in the north to the extreme south of the peninsula.
In 1565, the city of Vijayanagara was sacked and subsequently deserted.
Though it fell into ruin in the seventeenth-eighteenth centuries, Vijayanagara lived on in the memories of people in the Krishna-Tungabhadra doab as Hampi.
The name Hampi is derived from Pampadevi, the local mother goddess.
The ruins at Hampi were brought to light in 1800 by an engineer and antiquarian named Colonel Colin Mackenzie.
Colonel Colin Mackenzie, an employee of the English East India Company, prepared the first survey map of the Hampi site.
Initial information about Vijayanagara was based on the memories of priests of the Virupaksha temple and the shrine of Pampadevi.
From 1856, photographers began to record the monuments at Hampi, aiding scholars in their study.
As early as 1836, epigraphists began collecting inscriptions found at Hampi and other temples.
Scholars used a combination of oral traditions, archaeological finds, monuments, inscriptions, and other records to rediscover the Vijayanagara Empire.
The Vijayanagara kings called themselves Rayas.
According to tradition, two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336.
The empire was founded on the basis of claims to be Yadavas, who were followers of Lord Krishna.
Vijayanagara was often in conflict with contemporary rulers including the Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa.
The interaction between these states often involved the exchange of ideas, especially in architecture.
The rulers of Vijayanagara adopted many features of the temple building traditions of the Cholas, Hoysalas, and Pandyas.
The Vijayanagara army generally consisted of a cavalry (horsemen), elephant corps, and infantry.
The acquisition of horses from Arabia and Central Asia was crucial for the Vijayanagara army.
The trade in horses was initially controlled by Arab traders.
From 1498, the Portuguese arrived on the southwest coast of India and also became involved in the horse trade.
The revenue for maintaining the army came from agricultural produce and trade.
The term "Nayakas" was used for military chiefs who usually controlled forts and had armed supporters.
The Nayakas often migrated from one area to another and spoke Kannada, Telugu, or Tamil.
The Amara-Nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire.
Amara-Nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the Raya.
Amara-Nayakas collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftsmen, and traders.
A portion of the revenue collected by Amara-Nayakas was used for the maintenance of horses and elephants for the imperial army.
Amara-Nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts.
Kings occasionally transferred Amara-Nayakas from one place to another as a means of control.
The Amara-Nayaka system had similarities with the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.
The Vijayanagara city was characterized by its massive fortifications.
Abd al-Razzaq, an ambassador from Persia, noted that the fortifications of Vijayanagara enclosed not only the city but also agricultural tracts and forests.
The first line of fortification encircled the entire city, including surrounding hills.
The second line of fortification ran around the inner core of the urban complex.
The third line of fortification enclosed the royal centre within which stood the major buildings.
The walls of Vijayanagara were built in a slight taper and were made of stone, without using mortar.
The stone blocks in the fortifications were wedge-shaped, relying on the friction between them for stability.
Arches and domes were a distinctive feature of the gateways leading into the fortified city.
Water requirements in Vijayanagara were met by natural springs and artificial tanks.
The Tungabhadra river flowed in a northerly direction, forming a natural basin suitable for irrigation.
The Hiriya Canal was one of the most prominent waterworks, built during the Sangama dynasty.
The Kamalapuram Tank, built in the early years of the fifteenth century, collected rainwater and was used to irrigate nearby fields.
The urban core of Vijayanagara was located to the north of the royal centre.
Archaeologists have found evidence of rich residential buildings for the wealthy and smaller, simpler houses for common people.
The presence of wells, rain-fed tanks, and shrines suggests that there were many communities living in the urban core.
The royal centre was located in the southwestern part of the settlement.
The royal centre included over 60 temples, indicating the importance of cults and patronage to temples by the rulers.
The "King's Audience Hall" was an important structure, where the king met his advisors.
The Mahanavami Dibba was a massive platform in the royal centre, believed to be used for Mahanavami celebrations.
The Mahanavami festival, known as Mahanavami in the south, was celebrated during the autumn months of September and October.
Rituals performed on the Mahanavami Dibba included worship of the state horse, sacrifices, and ceremonial parades.
The Hazara Rama Temple was likely used only by the king and his family, known for its carved panels depicting scenes from the Ramayana.
The Lotus Mahal was a distinctive building in the royal centre, named by British travellers in the nineteenth century, possibly a council chamber.
The Elephants' Stables were located near the Lotus Mahal, housing the royal elephants.
The sacred centre of Vijayanagara was situated on the rocky northern bank of the Tungabhadra river.
According to local belief, the local mother goddess Pampadevi had performed penance here to marry Virupaksha, the guardian deity of the kingdom.
The Virupaksha Temple is one of the oldest temples in Vijayanagara, built over centuries.
The main shrine of the Virupaksha Temple dates to the ninth-tenth centuries, while additions were made in the Vijayanagara period.
The hall in front of the main shrine of Virupaksha Temple was built by Krishnadeva Raya to mark his accession.
The Vitthala Temple is another important temple in Vijayanagara, dedicated to Vitthala, a form of Vishnu worshipped in Maharashtra.
The Vitthala Temple has several shrines and halls, including a unique stone chariot.
The musical pillars of the Vitthala Temple are famous, producing musical notes when tapped.
Temples served as centers of learning and culture in Vijayanagara.
Krishnadeva Raya was considered the most famous ruler of Vijayanagara.
Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty.
His rule was marked by expansion and consolidation.
Krishnadeva Raya founded a suburban township near Vijayanagara called Nagalapuram, named after his mother.
Krishnadeva Raya is credited with building some of the most impressive gopurams (gateway towers) and mandapas (pavilions) in temples.
The death of Krishnadeva Raya in 1529 led to tensions amongst his successors.
By 1542, control of the empire shifted to the Aravidu dynasty.
The military strength of the Vijayanagara rulers led to conflicts with the Deccan Sultans.
In 1565, the Battle of Talikota saw the Vijayanagara army decisively defeated by the combined armies of Bijapur, Ahmednagar, and Golconda.
Following the defeat at Talikota, Vijayanagara was sacked and subsequently abandoned.
The decline of Vijayanagara led to the rise of new powers, particularly the Nayakas.
Many of these Nayaka kingdoms, like those of Ikkeri and Mysore, continued the Vijayanagara administrative traditions.
The city of Vijayanagara was organized into a royal centre, an urban core, and a sacred centre.
Excavations at Vijayanagara revealed pottery, coins, sculptures, and inscriptions, providing valuable historical insights.
Foreign travellers like Nicolo de Conti, Abdur Razzaq, Domingos Paes, and Fernao Nuniz left detailed accounts of Vijayanagara.
These foreign accounts provide a vivid description of the city's grandeur, its markets, and the lifestyles of its people.
The courtly rituals and festivals of Vijayanagara, such as Mahanavami, were elaborately described by travellers.
The "Elephant's Stable" is an example of Indo-Islamic architectural influence, featuring arches and domes.
The rulers of Vijayanagara adopted titles such as "Hindu Suratrana" (Sultan among Hindu Kings) to indicate their close links with the Sultans.
The horse trade brought wealth to the Vijayanagara empire and facilitated military expansion.
The architectural styles of Vijayanagara reflect a blend of indigenous traditions and influences from other regions.
The sculptures on the temples depict themes from Hindu mythology and daily life.
The collapse of the Vijayanagara empire in 1565 marked a significant turning point in the history of South India.