A population is a society made up of distinct but interlinked classes and communities.
These communities are sustained and regulated by social institutions and social relationships.
Three institutions central to Indian society are caste, tribe, and family.
Caste is an ancient social institution uniquely associated with the Indian subcontinent.
The English word 'caste' is derived from the Portuguese word 'casta', meaning 'pure breed'.
The term 'caste' in Indian languages is most often used as 'jati'.
'Varna', literally 'colour', is used to describe a four-fold division of society: Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra.
The 'outcastes', foreigners, slaves, and conquered peoples were sometimes referred to as the 'panchamas' or fifth category.
Caste is determined by birth; one is born into their parents' caste and cannot change it.
Membership in a caste involves strict rules about marriage, known as endogamy, where marriage is restricted to members within the same group.
Caste membership also involves rules about food and food-sharing, prescribing what kinds of food may or may not be eaten and with whom.
Caste involves a system of many castes arranged in a hierarchy of rank and status.
The hierarchical ordering of castes is based on the distinction between 'purity' and 'pollution'.
Castes considered ritually pure have high status, while those considered less pure or impure have low status.
Caste groups are traditionally associated with occupations, meaning a person born into a particular caste could only pursue the occupation associated with it.
Caste has been a relatively closed system, making it difficult to change one's life circumstances based on merit.
Colonialism brought significant changes to the caste system in India.
The British administration undertook a rigorous exercise of cataloguing and documenting castes, especially through census operations.
The census from 1860 onwards included a detailed enumeration of caste, recording information on each caste's customs, rules, and occupations.
This process of enumeration contributed to the solidification of caste identities.
Large-scale irrigation schemes, particularly in Punjab, involved resettling people based on their caste categories.
Land revenue settlements and their legal arrangements also served to formalize caste-based ownership and rights.
The British also initiated efforts to protect the 'depressed classes' through welfare measures.
The Government of India Act of 1935 was passed to enable the provision of reservations for scheduled castes.
Dalit movements and other anti-caste movements challenged the traditional caste system.
In contemporary India, caste continues to be a significant social reality, though its manifestations have changed.
Urbanization and occupational mobility have led to some blurring of caste boundaries in cities.
The Constitution of India abolished untouchability and prohibited discrimination based on caste.
The reservation policy for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes aims to address historical injustices and promote equality.
Caste associations and caste-based political parties continue to play a role in Indian politics.
Sanskritisation is a process by which a 'low' Hindu caste, or tribal or other group, changes its customs, rituals, ideology, and way of life in the direction of a 'high' and frequently 'twice-born' caste.
The concept of 'dominant caste' was introduced by M.N. Srinivas, referring to a caste that wields decisive influence and power in a particular area.
A caste becomes dominant due to its large population, economic power through land ownership, and political power.
Tribal communities in India are often characterized by their unique cultures, languages, and traditional practices.
Tribes are sometimes seen as 'original inhabitants' or 'autochthonous' populations.
The British classified tribes as 'primitive' and often isolated them for administrative convenience or for resource extraction.
Many tribal areas were declared 'excluded' or 'partially excluded' areas during the British Raj.
After independence, debates arose regarding the integration of tribal communities into mainstream society.
Some advocated for 'isolation' to protect tribal cultures, while others emphasized 'assimilation' into the national mainstream.
Development projects like dams and mining have often led to displacement and loss of livelihood for tribal communities.
Tribal movements have emerged to assert their rights to land, forest resources, and cultural identity.
The Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the Constitution provide special provisions for tribal areas.
The family is a universal social institution, but its forms and practices vary across cultures.
Family can be nuclear (parents and children) or extended (including other relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles).
Patrilocal families are those where the married couple lives with or near the husband's parents.
Matrilocal families are those where the married couple lives with or near the wife's parents.
Patrilineal descent traces kinship through the male line.
Matrilineal descent traces kinship through the female line.
Patriarchal families are those where the male head holds authority and makes major decisions.
Matriarchal families are those where the female head holds authority and makes major decisions.
In India, the most common family structure has been the patrilineal, patrilocal, and patriarchal joint family.
Kinship refers to the system of social relationships based on blood ties (consanguineal) and marriage (affinal).
Kinship systems define roles, responsibilities, and obligations within a family and across generations.
Changes in family structures are influenced by factors like urbanization, education, and economic opportunities.
The rise of nuclear families in urban areas is a notable change in contemporary India.
Live-in relationships and same-sex partnerships represent further evolving forms of family and relationships.
Social institutions are not static; they undergo continuous processes of change while also maintaining elements of continuity.
The relationship between continuity and change in social institutions is dynamic and complex.
Social institutions often resist rapid change due to their deeply embedded nature in society.